Outline of Chapter 2 Essay Example

Outline of Chapter 2 Essay chapter 2 chapter outline module 5 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior The Structure of the Neuron How Neurons Fire Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers module 6 module 7 The Brain The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communicating within the Body The Nervous System The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain The Central Core: Our â€Å"Old Brain† The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core The Cerebral Cortex: Our â€Å"New Brain† Neuroplasticity and the Brain The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One? Exploring Diversity: Human Diversity and the Brain Try It! Assessing Brain Lateralization The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Learning to Control Your Heart—and Mind—through Biofeedback Psychology on the Web The Case of . . . The Fallen Athlete Full Circle: Neuroscience and Behavior 46 The Deepest Cut Wendy Nissley carried her two-year-old daughter, Lacy, into O. R. 12 at Johns Hopkins Hospital to have half of her brain removed. Lacy suffers from a rare malformation of the brain, known as hemimegalencephaly, in which one hemisphere grows larger than the other. The condition causes seizures, and Lacy was having so many—up to forty in a day—that at an age when other toddlers were trying out sentences, she could produce only a few language-like sounds. As long as Lacy’s malformed right hemisphere was attached to the rest of her brain, it would prevent her left hemisphere from functioning normally. We will write a custom essay sample on Outline of Chapter 2 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Outline of Chapter 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Outline of Chapter 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer So Lacy’s parents had brought her to Johns Hopkins for a hemispherectomy, which is probably the most radical procedure in neurosurgery. (Kenneally, 2006, p. 36) neuroscience and behavior It took nearly a day, but the surgery to remove half of Lacy’s brain was a success. Within a few months, Lacy was crawling and beginning to speak. Although the long-term effects of the radical operation are still unclear, it brought substantial improvement to Lacy’s life. The ability of surgeons to identify and remove damaged portions of the brain is little short of miraculous. The greater miracle, though, is the brain itself. An organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread, the brain controls our behavior through every waking and sleeping moment. Our movements, thoughts, hopes, aspirations, dreams—our very awareness that we are human—all depend on the brain and the nerves that extend throughout the body, constituting the nervous system. Because of the importance of the nervous system in controlling behavior, and because humans at their most basic level are biological beings, many researchers in psychology and other fields as diverse as computer science, zoology, and medicine have made the biological underpinnings of behavior their specialty. These experts collectively are called neuroscientists (Beatty, 2000; Posner DiGirolamo, 2000; Gazzaniga, Ivry, Mangun, 2002; Cartwright, 2006). Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior are known as Behavioral neuroscientists Psychologists who specialize in behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists). They seek to answer sevconsidering the ways in which the eral key questions: How does the brain control the voluntary and involunbiological structures and functions tary functioning of the body? How does the brain communicate with other of the body affect behavior. parts of the body? What is the physical structure of the brain, and how does this structure affect behavior? Are psychological disorders caused by biological factors, and how can such disorders be treated? As you consider the biological processes that we’ll discuss in this chapter, it is important to keep in mind why behavioral neuroscience is an essential part of psychology: our understanding of human behavior requires knowledge of the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Biological factors are central to our sensory experiences, states of consciousness, motivation and emotion, development throughout the life span, and physical and psychological health. Furthermore, advances in behavioral neuroscience have led to the creation of drugs and other treatments for psychological and physical disorders. In short, we cannot understand behavior without understanding our biological makeup (Plomin, 2003a; Compagni Manderscheid, 2006; Plomin et al. , 2008). 47 looking ahe ad module 5 Neurons The Basic Elements of Behavior learning outcomes 5. 1 Explain the structure of a neuron. The nervous system is the pathway for the instructions that permit our bodies to carry out everyday activities such as scratching an itch as well as more remarkable skills like climbing to the top of Mount Everest. Here we will look at the structure and function of neurons, the cells that make up the nervous system, including the brain. 5. 2 Describe how neurons fire. 5. 3 Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another. 5. 4 Identify neurotransmitters. The Structure of the Neuron LO 1 Playing the piano, driving a car, or hitting a tennis ball depend, at one level, on exact muscle coordination. But if we consider how the muscles can be activated so precisely, we see that there are more fundamental processes involved. For the muscles to produce the complex movements that make up any meaningful physical activity, the brain has to provide the right messages to them and coordinate those messages. Such messages—as well as those which enable us to think, remember, and experience emotion—are passed through specialized cells called neurons. Neurons Nerve cells, the basic Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic elements of the nervous system. Their elements of the nervous system. uantity is staggering—perhaps as many as 1 trillion neurons throughout Dendrites A cluster of fibers at the body are involved in the control of behavior (Boahen, 2005). one end of the neuron that receives messages from other neurons. Although there are several types of neurons, they all have a similar strucAxon The part of the neuron that ture, as illustrated in Figure 1. In contrast to most other cells, however, carries messages destined for other neurons have a distinctive feature: the ability to communicate with other neurons. cells and transmit information across relatively long distances. Many of the body’s neurons receive signals from the environment or relay the nervous system’s messages to muscles and other target cells, but the vast majority of neurons communicate only with other neurons in the elaborate information system that regulates behavior. As you can see in Figure 1, a neuron has a cell body with a cluster of fibers called dendrites at one end. Those fibers, which look like the twisted Remember that Dendrites branches of a tree, receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite Detect messages from other of the cell body is a long, slim, tubelike extension called an axon. The axon neurons; Axons carry signals carries messages received by the dendrites to other neurons. The axon is conAway from the cell body. siderably longer than the rest of the neuron. Although most axons are several s tudy aler t 48 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dendrites Terminal buttons Cell body M o ec vem tric ent of al i mpu lse el Myelin sheath Axon (inside myelin sheath) Figure 1 The primary components of the specialized cell called the neuron, the basic element of the nervous system (Van De Graaff, 2000). A neuron, like most types of cells in the body, has a cell body and a nucleus, but it also contains structures that carry messages: the dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons, and the axon, which carries messages to other neurons or body cells. In this neuron, as in most neurons, the axon is protected by the sausagelike myelin sheath. What advantages does the treelike structure of the neuron provide? millimeters in length, some are as long as three feet. A xons end in small bulges called terminal buttons, which send messages to other neurons. The messages that travel through a neuron are electrical in nature. Although there are exceptions, those electrical messages, or impulses, generally move across neurons in one direction only, as if they were traveling on a one-way street. Impulses follow a route that begins with the dendrites, continues into the cell body, and leads ultimately along the tubelike extension, the axon, to adjacent neurons. To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another, axons must be insulated in some fashion (just as electrical wires must be insulated). Most axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, a protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon like links of sausage. Terminal buttons Small bulges at the end of the axons that send messages to other neurons. Myelin sheath A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. All-or-none law The rule that neurons are either on or off. Resting state The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about 70 millivolts within a neuron. s tudy aler t Think of a neuron as a sausage, and the myelin sheath as the case around it. LO 2 How Neurons Fire Like a gun, neurons either fire—that is, transmit an electrical impulse along the axon—or don’t fire. There is no in-between stage, just as pulling harder on a gun trigger doesn’t make the bullet travel faster. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none law: they are either on or off, with nothing in between the on state and the off state. Once there is enough force to pull the trigger, a neuron fires. Before a neuron is triggered—that is, when it is in a resting state—it has a negative electrical charge of about 70 millivolts. When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along the cell membrane open briefly to allow positively charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions per second. The sudden arrival of these positive ions causes the charge within the nearby part of the cell to change momentarily from negative to positive. When the positive charge reaches a critical level, the â€Å"trigger† is pulled, and an electrical impulse, known as an action potential, travels along the axon of the neuron (see Figure 2). psych 2. 0 www. mhhe. com/psychlife Neurons 49 Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior Figure 2 Movement of the action potential across the axon. Just before Time 1, positively charged ions enter the cell membrane, changing the charge in the nearby part of the neuron from negative to positive and triggering an action potential. The action potential travels along the axon, as illustrated in the changes occurring from Time 1 to Time 3 (from top to bottom in this drawing). Immediately after the action potential has passed through a section of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that section to negative. Time 1 Voltage Time 2 ++ +++ – – – – – – Time 3 Voltage Voltage Positive charge Negative charge Direction of impulse Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a â€Å"trigger,† changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive. Mirror neurons Neurons that fire when a person enacts a particular behavior and also when a person views others’ behavior. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse. Just after an action potential has occurred, a neuron cannot fire again immediately no matter how much stimulation it receives. It is as if the gun has to be reloaded after each shot. Eventually, though, the neuron is ready to fire once again. Neurons differ not only in terms of how quickly an impulse moves along the axon but also in their potential rate of firing. Some neurons are capable of firing as many as a thousand times per second; others fire at much slower rates. The intensity of a stimulus determines how much of a neuron’s potential firing rate is reached. A strong stimulus, such as a bright light or a loud sound, leads to a higher rate of firing than a less intense stimulus does. Thus, even though all impulses move at the same strength or speed through a particular axon—because of the all-or-none law—there is variation in the frequency of impulses, providing a mechanism by which we can distinguish the tickle of a feather from the weight of someone standing on our toes. Although all neurons operate through the firing of action potentials, there is significant specialization among different types of neurons. For example, in the last decade, neuroscientists have discovered the existence of mirror neurons, neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior (Lepage Theoret, 2007; Schulte-Ruther et al. , 2007). 50 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. Specifically, mirror neurons may fire when we view others’ behavior, helping us to predict what their goals are and what hey may do next (Oberman, Pineda, Ramachandran, 2007; Triesch, Jasso, Deak, 2007). Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. LO 3 Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap Synapse The space between two If you have looked inside a computer, you’ve seen that each part is physically connected to another part. In con trast, evolution has produced a neural transmission system that at some points has no need for a structural connection between its components. Instead, a chemical connection bridges the gap, known as a synapse, between two neurons (see Figure 3). The synapse is the space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron 1 Neurotransmitters are produced and stored in the axon. neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages. 2 If an action potential arrives, the axon releases neurotransmitters. 3 Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse to receptor sites on another neuron’s dendrite. Axon Axon Synapse Dendrite Synapse Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter Synapse Receptor site Receptor site 4 When a neurotransmitter fits into a receptor site, it delivers an excitatory or inhibitory message. If enough excitatory messages are delivered, the neuron will fire. A Neurotransmitter Dendrite B Figure 3 (A) A synapse is the junction between an axon and a dendrite. The gap between the axon and the dendrite is bridged by chemicals called neurotransmitters (Mader, 2000). (B) Just as the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor cell (Johnson, 2000). Why is it advantageous for axons and dendrites to be linked by temporary chemical bridges rather than by the hard wiring typical of a radio connection or telephone hookup? Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior 51 communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages (Fanselow Poulos, 2005; Dean Dresbach, 2006). carry messages across the synapse to When a nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon and reaches a terminal the dendrite (and sometimes the cell button, the terminal button releases a chemical courier called a neurotransbody) of a receiver neuron. mitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the Excitatory messages Chemical synapse to a dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron. messages that make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an The chemical mode of message transmission that occurs between neurons is action potential will travel down its axon. strikingly different from the means by which communication occurs inside Inhibitory messages Chemical neurons: although messages travel in electrical form within a neuron, they messages that prevent or decrease the move between neurons through a chemical transmission system. ikelihood that a receiving neuron will fire. There are several types of neurotransmitters, and not all neurons are Reuptake The reabsorption of capable of receiving the chemical message carried by a particular neuneurotransmitters by a terminal button. rotransmitter. In the same way that a jigsaw puzzle piece can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, e ach kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor site on the receiving neuron (see Figure 3B). It is only when a neurotransmitter fits precisely into a receptor site that successful chemical communication is possible. If a neurotransmitter does fit into a site on the receiving neuron, the chemical message it delivers is basically one of two types: excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory messages make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory messages, in contrast, do just the opposite; they provide chemical information that prevents or decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. Because the dendrites of a neuron receive both excitatory and inhibitory messages simultaneously, the neuron must integrate the messages by using a kind of chemical calculator. Put simply, if the excitatory messages (â€Å"fire! †) outnumber psych 2. 0 the inhibitory ones (â€Å"don’t fire! †), the neuron fires. In contrast, if the inhibitory www. mhhe. com/psychlife messages outnumber the excitatory ones, nothing happens, and the neuron remains in its resting state (Mel, 2002; Flavell et al. , 2006). If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the synapse, receiving neurons would be awash in a continual chemical bath, producing constant stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving neurons—and effective communication across the synapse would no longer be possible. To solve this problem, neurotransmitters are either deactivated by enzymes or—more commonly— reabsorbed by the terminal button in an example of chemical recycling called reuptake. Like a vacuum cleaner sucking up dust, neurons reabsorb the neurotransmitters that are now clogging the synapse. All this activity Messages Traveling between Neurons occurs at lightning speed (Helmuth, 2000; Holt Jahn, 2004). Neurotransmitters Chemicals that LO 4 Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior. Not only are they important for maintaining vital brain and body functions, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders. More than a hundred chemicals have been found to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified (Penney, 2000; Schmidt, 2006). Neurotransmitters vary significantly in terms of how strong their concentration must be to trigger a neuron to fire. Furthermore, the effects of a particular neurotransmitter vary, depending on the area of the nervous system in 52 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dopamine Pathways Name Acetylcholine (ACh) Location Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system, especially some organs of the parasympathetic nervous system Brain, spinal cord Brain, spinal cord Effect Excitatory in brain and autonomic nervous system; inhibitory elsewhere Function Muscle movement, cognitive functioning Glutamate Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) Excitatory Main inhibitory neurotransmitter Memory Eating, aggression, sleeping Serotonin Pathways Dopamine (DA) Brain Inhibitory or excitatory Muscle disorders, mental disorders, Parkinson’s disease Sleeping, eating, mood, pain, depression Pain suppression, pleasurable feelings, appetities, placebos Serotonin Brain, spinal cord Inhibitory Endorphins Brain, spinal cord Primarily inhibitory, except in hippocampus Figure 4 Some major neurotransmitters. which it is produced. The same neurotransmitter, then, can act as an excitatory message to a neuron located in one part of the brain and can inhibit firing in neurons located in another part. (The major neurotransmitters and their effects are described in Figure 4. ) One of the most common neurotransmitters is acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical symbol), which is found throughout the nervous system. ACh is Michael J. Fox, who suffers from Parkinson’s disease, like Muhammad Ali, has become a strong advocate for research into the disorder. The pair is seen here asking Congress for additional funds for Parkinson’s research. Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior 53 involved in our every move, because—among other things—it transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles. ACh is also involved in memory capabilities, and diminished production of ACh may be related to Alzheimer’s disease (Mohapel et al. , 2005). Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine (DA), which is involved in movement, attention, and learning. The discovery that certain drugs can have a significant effect on dopamine release has led to the development of effective treatments for a wide variety of physical and mental ailments. For instance, Parkinson’s disease, from which actor Michael J. Fox suffers, is caused by a deficiency of dopamine in the brain. Techniques for increasing the production of dopamine in From the perspective of . . . A Health Care Provider How might your understanding of the nervous system help you explain the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease to a patient with the disorder? Parkinson’s patients are proving effective (Kaasinen Rinne, 2002; Willis, 2005; Iversen Iversen, 2007). In other instances, over production of dopamine produces negative consequences. For example, researchers have hypothesized that schizophrenia and some other severe mental disturbances are affected or perhaps even caused by the presence of unusually high levels of dopamine. Drugs that block the reception of dopamine reduce the symptoms displayed by some people diagnosed with schizophrenia (Baumeister Francis, 2002; Bolonna Kerwin, 2005; Olijslagers, Werkman, McCreary, 2006). recap Explain the structure of a neuron.  ¦ A neuron has a cell body (which contains a nucleus) with a cluster of fibers called dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite end of the cell body is a tubelike extension, an axon, which ends in a small bulge called a terminal button. Terminal buttons send messages to other neurons. (p. 48) message to fire, it releases an action potential, an electrical charge that travels through the axon. Neurons operate according to an all-ornone law: Either they are at rest, or an action potential is moving through them. There is no in-between state. p. 49) Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another.  ¦ Once a neuron fires, nerve impulses are carried to other neurons through the production of chemical substances, neurotransmitters, that actually bridge the gaps—known as synapses—between neurons. Neurotransmitters Describe how neurons fire.  ¦ Most axons are insulated by a coating called the myelin sheath. When a neuron receives a 54 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior may be either excitatory, telling other neurons to fire, or inhibitory, preventing or decreasing the likelihood of other neurons firing. (p. 52) Identify neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are an important link between the nervous system and behavior. Common neurotransmitters include the following: acetylcholine, which transmits messages relating to our muscles and is involved in memory capabilities; glutamate, which plays a role in memory; gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), which moderates behaviors from eating to aggression; dopamine, which is involved in movement, attention, and learning; serotonin, which is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain; and endorphins, which seem to be involved in the brain’s effort to deal with pain and elevate mood. p. 53) evaluate 1. The is the fundamental element of the nervous system. and send messages through their 2. Neurons receive informatio n through their . 3. Just as electrical wires have an outer coating, axons are insulated by a coating called the . 4. The gap between two neurons is bridged by a chemical connection called a 5. Endorphins are one kind of , the chemical â€Å"messengers† between neurons. . rethink How might psychologists use drugs that mimic the effects of neurotransmitters to treat psychological disorders? Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. neuron; 2. dendrites, axons; 3. yelin sheath; 4. synapse; 5. neurotransmitter key terms Behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists) p. 47 Neurons p. 48 Dendrites p. 48 Axon p. 48 Terminal buttons p. 49 Myelin sheath p. 49 All-or-none law p. 49 Resting state p. 49 Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior Action potential p. 50 Mirror neurons p. 50 Synapse p. 51 Neurotransmitters p. 52 Excitatory messages p. 52 Inhibitory messages p. 52 Reuptake p. 52 55 module 6 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System Communicating within the Body learning ou tcomes 6. 1 Explain how the structures f the nervous system are linked together. The complexity of the nervous system is astounding. Estimates of the number of connections between neurons within the brain fall in the neighborhood of 10 quadrillion—a 1 followed by 16 zeros. Furthermore, connections among neurons are not the only means of communication within the body; as we’ll see, the endocrine system, which secretes chemical messages that circulate through the blood, also communicates messages that influence behavior and many aspects of biological functioning (Kandel, Schwartz, Jessell, 2000; Forlenza Baum, 2004; Boahen, 2005). . 2 Describe the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior. Central nervous system (CNS) The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord. Spinal cord A bundle of neurons LO 1 The Nervous System that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means of transmitting messages b etween the brain and the body. The human nervous system has both logic and elegance. We turn now to a discussion of its basic structures. Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems As you can see from the schematic representation in Figure 1, the nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord, which is about the thickness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back (see Figure 2). As you can see in Figure 1, the spinal cord is the primary means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body. 56 Chapter 2 euroscience and behavior The Nervous System Consists of the brain and the neurons extending throughout the body Peripheral Nervous System Made up of long axons and dendrites, it contains all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord Central Nervous System Consists of the brain and spinal cord Somatic Division (voluntary) Specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to a nd from the sense organs Autonomic Division (involuntary) Concerned with the parts of the body that function involuntarily without our awareness Brain An organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread that constantly controls behavior Spinal Cord A bundle of nerves that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back; transmits messages between the brain and the body Sympathetic Division Acts to prepare the body in stressful emergency situations, engaging resources to respond to a threat Parasympathetic Division Acts to calm the body after an emergency situation has engaged the sympathetic division; provides a means for the body to maintain storage of energy sources Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the relationship of the parts of the nervous system. However, the spinal cord is not just a communication channel. It also Reflex An automatic, involuntary controls some simple behaviors on its own, without any help from the response to an incoming stimulus. brain. An example is the way the knee jerks forward when it is tapped with a rubber hammer. This behavior is a type of reflex, an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. A reflex is also at work when psych 2. 0 you touch a hot stove and immediately withdraw your hand. Although the www. mhhe. com/psychlife brain eventually analyzes and reacts to the situation (â€Å"Ouch—hot stove— pull away! ), the initial withdrawal is directed only by neurons in the spinal cord. Three kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect sensory and mot or neurons, carrying messages between the two. Organization of the Nervous System Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 57 Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System Spinal nerves Figure 2 The central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system. Sensory (afferent) neurons Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons Neurons that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two. Peripheral nervous system The part As suggested by its name, the peripheral nervous system branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, the peripheral nervous system encompasses all the parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord. There are two major divisions— the somatic division and the autonomic division— both of which connect the central nervous system with the sense organs, muscles, glands, and other organs. The somatic division specializes in the control of voluntary movements—such as the motion of the eyes to read this sentence or those of the hand to turn this page—and the communication of information to and from the sense organs. On the other hand, the autonomic division controls the parts of the body that keep us alive—the heart, blood vessels, glands, lungs, and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness. As you are reading at this moment, the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is pumping blood through your body, pushing your lungs in and out, and overseeing the digestion of your last meal. Activating the Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic division plays a particularly crucial role during emergencies. Suppose that as you are reading in bed you suddenly sense that someone is outside your bedroom window. As you look up, you see the glint of an object that might

Word Choice Cord vs. Chord - Proofeds Writing Tips Blog

Word Choice Cord vs. Chord Word Choice: Cord vs. Chord Homonyms are words that sound identical but differ in meaning. As you might have already found, these tricky terms can be problematic. Fear not, though! Proofed is here to guide you through your vocabulary-based crises. Today in our ongoing Word Choice series, we tackle â€Å"cord† and â€Å"chord,† which are confusingly similar even before you get into their tangled etymologies (which, for the sake of simplicity, we’ll ignore). Cord (A String or Rope) The noun â€Å"cord† can mean a number of things, but the most common uses are to mean â€Å"a length of rope† or â€Å"an electrical cable.† Specifically, the term â€Å"cord† is used when describing flexible material thicker than a string but thinner than a rope, or the insulated wire connecting an electrical device to power source: After wrestling Jeremy to the ground, Matilda hogtied him with a length of cord. It was an hour before Boris realized his computer was missing its power cord. Another common context in which the word â€Å"cord† appears is medicine, where it applies to certain anatomical structures (e.g., â€Å"umbilical cord,† â€Å"vocal cords†). There are a few additional definitions too, such as a measurement for cut wood or the raised ribs on corduroy pants; these latter meanings are quite specialized though, so you probably don’t need to memorize them. Chord (A Pleasing Musical Arrangement) The word â€Å"chord† is a noun describing â€Å"three or more musical tones being played simultaneously.† On guitar, for example, the chord C is composed of the notes C, E and G. As such, â€Å"chord† is usually found in musical contexts: As soon as I heard the opening chords of â€Å"Born to Run,† I was an instant Springsteen fan. Sometimes â€Å"chord† is also used metaphorically, such as when we say something â€Å"struck a chord† with someone, which means to have made an emotional impact or evoke a reaction: Harriet didn’t care for politics, but the senators speech said had struck a chord with the whole crowd. Cord or Chord? Once you know what these words mean, it’s fairly easy to know which to use in any given situation. Simply ask yourself the following question: Are you describing a length of flexible material or an electrical wire? Or an anatomical structure? If so, use â€Å"cord.† Are you describing something musical? Or using the idiom â€Å"strike a chord†? If so, the term you’ll want is â€Å"chord.† Keep these guidelines in mind to avoid mixing them up in your written work. And to make doubly sure your papers are free from this kind of mistake, you can’t beat the expert eyes of a professional proofreader.

Analysis of Leadership and Motivation Research Paper

Analysis of Leadership and Motivation - Research Paper Example Also, I will plan my leadership strategy based on the findings of the evaluation and corresponding motivational methods. Evaluation of Personality Traits In order to evaluate the personality traits of 4 members in my team, first I will identify the personality types they belong to. As there is no one solution fits all personality types, I will be using the following 3 different personality type classifications understand their personality. Also sometimes, employees can show mixed personalities and hence the one that best suits will be used in making decisions. 1. Rye’s four personality types, namely, Power Player, Party Player, Team Players and Diplomatic Players (Rye, 1998). 2. Personality types based on social dimensions, namely, Drivers, Analytical, Amiable and Expressive (Orridge, 2009). 3. Holland’s six personality types: Realistic, Conventional, Enterprising, Social, Artistic and Investigative (Woods & West, 2010). Following is the evaluation of the four members i n my team: Ambrose H: Ambrose shows traits that are close to the personality types of Driver-Analytical and Realistic. Drivers are task-oriented, workaholics and results oriented. They place a very high priority on completing the task in hand. They are very efficient and good team players. Analytical on the other hand is very structured and organized with the focus being on task and details. They are very punctual and they are not comfortable approaching people. They do everything by the book (Fairley, 2011). Ambrose is also realistic as his personality characteristics match those of a realistic. Personality characteristics of a realistic are practical, uninvolved, stable, materialistic, genuine and shy (Kleynhans et al., 2009). Jackie M: Jackie is in complete contrast to Ambrose. Jackie’s personality types match closely to those of an expressive, team player and a social. Jackie is friendly, understanding, idealistic, sociable and kind. These personality characteristics make him a social. His characteristics are also closely related to that of an expressive. Expressive is overly enthusiastic and outgoing. They always try to create involvement and excitement in others and volunteer themselves to all activities (Bolton & Bolton, 2009). They are fun-loving, talkative and excitable. They are socializing but aren’t completion oriented. In a hurry to finish their jobs, they tend to make mistakes. Jackie is also a team player. Whenever there is extra work team players are always the first to volunteer. They tend to make others happy and are open to suggestions. They do not mind being told that they are wrong. Simon H: Simon is very different from both Jackie and Ambrose. Being the most experienced member of the team, he is very knowledgeable but does not share the same enthusiastic level as Jackie or the desire to perfection as Ambrose. The personality type of Simon matches that of a conventional, diplomatic and analytical. As all analytical Simon is v ery knowledgeable and task-oriented but he is not organized or structured (Huczynski, 2004). Most of Simon’s characteristics are in close match with a conventional. Following are the common personality characteristics of a convention that Simon shares: practical, inflexible, efficient and prudish. Simon is also a diplomat. Diplomats are quiet, independent individuals.  Ã‚  

Ethics and corrections Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethics and corrections - Essay Example For example if a correctional officer have to use force to subdue a inmate, does he use excessive force or the least amount necessary, as it will be difficult for a outsider to determine if the officer have acted ethically, but the officer himself will know if he have acted in good faith or abusive. Correctional professionals are also required to keep the inmates' personal information and reasons for incarceration confidential even though this may pose a danger to other inmates. So the dilemma in corrections can be seen as decisions and actions that needs to be taken in order to facilitate due process of rehabilitation, and in certain circumstances doing good will result in bad consequences, in others implementing negative or bad will have positive results. This correctional professionals have to make ethical decisions each day, facing dilemmas that goes against there morals, believes or value system. This may impede on their ability to make certain decisions or implement certain actions that could have resulted in a positive outcome or prevented a negative outcome. To be able to propose an ethical approach that can be used by correctional professionals we first need to evaluate the current system in use. In the world today many ethical systems are used in several unrelated fields such as business, environment, animal rights, medical, technological and criminal. In the criminal justice system Normative Ethics is the fundamental system used for making decisions. The idea behind Normative Ethics is that persons should act morally and take reasoning into account when making decisions or implementing actions. "Essentially, ethics, in prescribing certain standards of conduct, gives us a way of making choices in situations where we are unsure about how to act," (Cindy Banks, 2002, p7). Within the Normative Ethics system the Utilitarian Principals seems to apply most fittingly to correctional personal. Within the utilitarian concept the Rule Utilitarianism aligns with their responsibility and functions, and the Harm Principal to their behaviour. "Rule Utilitarianism: An act is right if and only if it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of rules, the acceptance of which would lead to greater good for society than any available alternative. Harm Principle: Society is justified in coercing the behavior of an individual in order to prevent her or him from injuring others; it is not justified in coercing her or him simply because the behavior is deemed immoral or harmful to herself or himself." (John Cleese, 2005). Even with this ethical system it is not always clear what action is the correct one, as when a person is facing a dilemma where an unmoral action will result in a positive outcome. People's value system they developed normally guides their ethical behaviour. Some of these values are; respect, responsibility, trust, truth, courage, faith, dependence, interdependence, etc. So how will a correctional professional be able to make sure his or her behaviour is ethical, even when facing a difficult dilemma Ethical Approach for Correctional Professionals Every person have to make ethical decisions from day to day, just deciding to help or not to help a old lady over the street is a ethical decision. A person can also decide not to make a decision

Strategic Management of Toyota Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Strategic Management of Toyota - Case Study Example The information for this paper will be retrieved from internet databases, online libraries, newspapers, journals, and books. This will ensure that the information is succinct and relates to the strategies of Toyota and all the aspects of strategic management that are in the firm. The key concerns will be the environmental scanning, strategy formulation, levels of strategies, the production levels strategy and the latest developments in strategic management. Environmental scanning is one of the most significant components of the strategic plan of any company. This is because a business does not exist in a vacuum and will often suffer from the effects of its environment. A company like Toyota has set shop in parts of the world and continues with its strategy of expanding so as to provide the whole world with the safest and most responsible means of transport. For this company environmental scanning is one of the most significant environmental global analysis. It involves activities in environmental monitoring, forecast, and assessment. The global environment includes that macro environment, which is made up of industries, markets, companies, clients and competitors. There is also the micro level's environment, which is made up of customers, suppliers, and competitors. In the environmental scanning, the firm mainly concentrates on the macro environment as the microenvironment is best dealt with at the industry or business level analysis. Environmental scanning refers to the study and interpretation of the political, economic, social, technological developments, legal issues and other tends in the business world that are likely to affect the company’s operations. The primary factors, which the firm needs to consider in the environmental scanning are events, expectations, and trends of the different groups that have an interest in the firm’s operations. These issues are mostly the forerunners in a company’s trend break. A trend break, in this ca se, refers to a shift in the value people lay on the business or technological innovation that paradigms a change. A firm like Toyota needs to constantly analyze its business environment so as to keep up with the trends and changes in the market. Trends seem to reoccur and change often, whereas issues in the business environment may either be temporary or permanent (Freeman 2010). The execution of s strategy in any organization goes through three phases, these are diagnosis, formulation and implementation stages. For Toyota strategic management is a continuous process to develop and revise the future-based strategies that allow the organization to continue being in the lead in the car production industry in the world for many years to come. The strategy allows the firm to achieve both its short term and long term objectives.

Cell-cell Interaction in Embryo Development

Cell-cell Interaction in Embryo Development The formation of vulva depends upon a second round of cell-cell interaction. The anchor cell (located in the gonad) and six precursor cells (located in the skin adjacent to the gonad) are involved in this interaction. The precursor cells are collectively called Pn.p cells, which contains cells named as P3.p to P8.p. The fate of these cells is determined by its position relative to the anchor cell. The developmental pathways of these cells are presented in Fig.11.8. During third larval stage, the lin-3 gene is activated in the anchor cell, and produces the signal protein LIN-3, which is related to vertebrate epidermal growth factor (EGF). The precursor cells express a receptor encoded by let-23 gene, which is homologous to the vertebrate EGF receptor. The binding of LIN-3 protein and LET-23 receptor, trigger a series of intracellular events that determines whether the precursor cells will form the primary vulval precursor cell or secondary vulval cells. Mutant let-23 gene sends no signal and thus Pn.p cells cannot act, and vulva is not formed. Usually, P6.p cell, the closest cell to the anchor cell, receives the strongest signal initiated by LIN-3 binding to LET-23. Expression of the Vulvaless (Vul) gene (a mutant phenotype) in P6.p is activated by this signal, and then divides three times to produce vulva cells. The P5.p and P7.p, the two neighbouring cells, receives lower amount of signal, and divide asymmetrically to form additional vulva cells. Thereafter, a third level of cell-cell interaction occurs, in which the primary vulval cell P6.p sends a signal that activates lin-12 gene in P5.p and P7.p cells. This signal prevents these cells from adopting the division pattern of the primary cell. Thus, cells in which both Vul and lin-12 are active cannot become primary vulva cells. On the other hand, P3.p, P4.p, and P8.p cells do not receive any signal from the anchor cell, but the Multivulva (Muv) gene is expressed. Muv gene product represses the expression of Vul gene and they develop as skin cells. Thus three levels of cell-cell interactions are involved in the developmental pathway leading to vulva formation in the nematode C. elegans. CELL-CELL INTERACTION IN DEVELOPMENT Cell-cell interaction is an important phenomenon in the development of the embryo in eukaryotic organisms. Animals use a number of signalling pathway to regulate development after organogenesis. Signal networks establish anterior-posterior polarity and body axis, coordinate pattern formation, and direct the differentiation of tissues and organs. One of the widely studied cell-cell interaction is Notch signalling pathway, named after the Drosophila mutants that were used to identify components of this pathway. The Notch gene encodes a transmembrane signal receptor (Fig.11.9). The signal itself is a transmembrane protein called â€Å"Delta†, and encoded by the gene Delta. The Notch signal system works only between adjacent cells. First the â€Å"Delta† protein binds to the Notch receptor, which triggers cleaving of the cytoplasmic tail of the Notch protein and then moves to the nucleus where it binds to a protein encoded by the Su(H) (suppressor of Hairless) gene. Following this a set of genes becomes activated that controls a specific developmental pathway directing cell fate. One of the roles of the Notch signal system is to specify the fate of equivalent cells in a population. Thus action of Notch signalling system may send signal to two neighbouring cells that are developmentally equivalent, towards different developmental pathways. Four members of the Notch family (Notch 1 to Notch 4) have been identified in humans. Several human developmental disorders have been related to mutations in these genes. These include: alagille syndrome (AGS), spondylocostal dysostosis (SD), and lymphoblastic leukemia. STEM CELLS AND DEVELOPMENT Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that are capable to differentiate into different types of specialized cells. Stem cells are normally found in two main sources: in embryos which are at blastocyst stage of embryological development (embryonic stem cells), and in adult tissues (adult stem cells). These cells are generally characterized by their potential to differentiate into different cell types, for example muscle, blood, skin, bone etc. Human embryo that is in the blastocyst phase of development (4-5 days old) is the excellent source of embryonic stem cells. Formation of single cell zygote through fusion of male sperm with female’s egg is the beginning of sexual reproduction process. This is followed by a series of mitotic divisions in a single cell zygote which leads to the formation of a cell mass containing approximately 12-16 cells. This is known as blastocyst before it is implanted in uterus (4-6 days old). Blastocyst can be differentiated into an inner cell mass (embryoblast) and an outer cell mass (trophoblast). Trophoblast becomes the part of placenta and cells of embryoblast differentiate into all the structures of an adult organism. This embryoblast is the source of embryonic stem cells which are totipotent. During normal pregnancy, the blastocyst stage of embryo continues by the end of the tenth week of gestation. When embryonic stem cells are extracted from the blastocyst stage and placed onto a culture medium (a nutrient-rich broth) contained in culture vessels, they divide and replicate, but fail to differentiate. This happens, as necessary stimulation to differentiate (in the in vivo conditions) is lacking in the in-vitro conditions. However, they maintain their ability to differentiate into different type of cells in human body. Adult or somatic stem cells present throughout the body inside different type of tissues even after embryonic development. Tissues like, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, brain, skeleton muscle, skin and the liver are good source of adult stem cells. These cells remain in resting state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury. Adult stem cells have property of division and self renewal which enables them to regenerate entire organ. Earlier it was believed that adult stem cells have the potential to differentiate only to the cell type of their originating tissue or organ, but according to some recent evidence they can differentiate to other cell types as well. Embryonic stem cells are easier to grow under in-vitro conditions as compared to adult stem cells. For culturing of stem cells, they are extracted from either adult cells or from dividing zygotes. Once isolated, they can be cultured in culture dishes containing culture broth under controlled conditions. The nutrient broth allows them to divide and replicate, but prohibits them from further specializing or differentiating. Once proliferation of stem cells starts successfully, they are subcultured on fresh medium in order to enhance the growth rate. The collection of healthy, dividing, and undifferentiated stem cells, after first subculture, is called as stem cell line. Once under control, these stem cell lines can be stimulated to differentiate into specialized cells, a process known as directed differentiation. Based on their potential to differentiate into other types of cells, stem cells are classified into the following categories. Totipotent: those cells which are able to differentiate into all possible cell types. Example, few cells which are obtained through initial divisions of the zygote. Pluripotent: those cells which are able differentiate into almost all cell types. Example, embryonic stem cells which are derived from the endodermal, mesodermal, and ectodermal layers of blastocyst. Multipotent: those cells which are able to differentiate into closely related family of cells. Example, hematopoietic stem cells that has the potential to form red/white blood cells and platelets. Oligopotent: those cells which are able to differentiate into a few cells. Example, lymphoid and myeloid stem cells. Unipotent: those cells which are able to produce cells of their own type, but have the property of self-renewal. Example, adult mouse stem cell. For identification of stem cells, it is important to note that they are undifferentiated and capable of self-renewal. These two parameters are normally checked through laboratory tests for identification of stem cells. Bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) are tested by transplanting these cells to an individual from which HSCs are removed. The production of new blood and immune cells in that individual indicates the self renewal potency of stem cells. Colonogenic assay (a laboratory procedure) is also used to test the potency of stem cells. Routine examination of chromosomal can also be done to check whether the cells are healthy and undifferentiated. Sometime spontaneous or induced differentiation of embryonic stem cells under cell culture conditions indicates their pluripotent nature. Other tests include administration of stem cells into an immunosupressed mouse and observe it for the formation of a teratoma, which is a benign tumour containing a mixture of differentiated cells. Applications of Stem Cells It is important to note that every cell and tissue in the body of an individual is develop and differentiate from initial few stem cells which form during early stages of embryological development. Therefore, embryonic stem cell can be induced to differentiate into any other type of cells. Due to this regeneration potential, stem cells have been used by researchers to regenerate damaged tissues and organs under the right conditions. Usually damaged organs are replaced by healthy organs donated by someone. But the demand far exceeds the supply of organs. Particular type of tissue or organ could potentially be developed from stem cells, if directed to differentiate in a certain way. For example, stem cells that present just beneath the skin tissue have been used to regenerate new skin tissue and then grafted on to burn victims successfully. Another potential application is replacement of cells and tissue for treatment of brain disease like Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. If the damaged tissue can be replenished by specialized tissue derived from stem cells such diseases can be treated for recovery. In the near future it may be possible to transplant healthy heart cells developed in a laboratory from stem cells into the patients with heart disease, thereby repopulating the heart with healthy tissue. Similarly it may be possible to replace damaged pancreatic cells by insulin producing cells derived from stem cell, to treat type l diabetic patients. For the treatment of diseases like leukemia, sickle cell anemia and other immunodeficiencies, adult hematopoietic stem cells found in bone marrow and blood have been used. All type of blood cells (erythrocytes as well as leukocytes) can be developed from HSC. However it is difficult to isolate hematopoietic stem cells from the bone marrow. Alternatively, hematopoietic cells are also found in the umbilical cord and placenta, from which they can be isolated easily. Realizing its potential use, umbilical cord blood banks have been established to store these powerful cells for their future use. Therapeutic cloning or somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) technique involves replacement of genetic material from a somatic cell (say from skin cell) into an unfertilized egg cell in order to develop patient specific stem cells. In this procedure, since sperms are not involved fertilization does not occur. Foetus is also not involved because the groups of cells from which the stem cells are obtained are not implanted in the uterus. Stem cells which are developed through SCNT technique have more potential for therapeutic applications. The chances of rejection by patient’s body are less because their genetic makeup is identical to patient’s genetic makeup. Through SCNT, disease specific cell lines can be developed which are used for in-vitro studies to understand the mechanism of disease development and mode of action of certain drugs which may be used to treat these diseases. Stem cell research is also useful for understanding development of human after formation of fertilized zygote. Undifferentiated stem cells eventually differentiate partly because of turning on or off of particular gene(s). Thus research on stem cell may help to clarify the role of specific genes that play in determining how specialized cells and tissues are formed. Stem cell research is also being pursued to develop new drugs. Healthy human tissues which are developed through stem cells can be used to evaluate the effect of new drug rather than using human volunteers. Table.11.1. Segmentation gene loci in Drosophila â€Å"Gap† genes â€Å"Pair-role† genes â€Å"Segment polarity† genes Giant Ever skipped Armadillo Huckebein Fushi tarazu Cubitis interruptus Hunchback Hairy Disheveled Kruppel Odd paired Engrailed Knirps Odd skipped Fused Tailless Runt Gooseberry Sloppy paired Hedgehog Naked Paired Patched Wingless Figure Captions Fig. 11.1. Early stages of embryonic development in Drosophila. A cascade of gene activation sets up theDrosophilabody plan. Thematernal-effect genes, named as bicoid and nanos, are active during oogenesis. The products of these genes are found in the egg at the time of fertilization, and form morphogen gradients. These proteins function as transcription factors that regulate the expression of gap genes. The gap genes are responsible for the differentiation of anterior-posterior axis on embryo along its length. Proteins which are encoded by gap genes also function as transcription factors and regulate the expression of the pair-rule genes. Thepair-rule genesare responsible for differentiation of pairs of segments on embryo. Transcription factors which are encoded by pair-rule genes regulate the expression of thesegment polarity genes. The expression of segment polarity genes leads the development of anterior/posterior axis of each segment. The gap genes, pair-rule genes, and segment polarity genes are collectively involved in segment patterning hence they are known as segmentation genes. Fig. 11.2. The hierarchy of genes involved in establishing the segmented body plan in Drosophila. Gene products from the maternal genes regulate the expression of the first three groups of zygotic genes (gap, pair-rule, and segment polarity, collectively called the segmentation genes), which in turn control the expression of the homeotic genes. Fig. 11.3. Progressive restriction of cell fate during development in Drosophila. Fig. 11.4. Overlapping of regions containing two different gene products can generate new patterns of gene expression. Transcription factors A and B are present in overlapping region 3, of expression. If both the transcription factors must bind to the promoter of a target gene to trigger expression, the gene will be active only in cells containing both factors (most likely in the zone of overlap). There shall be no transcription in individually in the region 1 and 2. Fig. 11.5. Cell arrangement in the floral meristem. (a) The four concentric rings, or whorls, labeled 1-4, influenced by genes A, B, and C in the manner shown, give rise to the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels, respectively, (b) The arrangement of these organs in the mature flower. Fig. 11.6. A truncated cell lineage chart for C. elegans, showing early divisions and the tissues and organs that eventually result. Each vertical line represents a cell division, and horizontal lines connect the two cells produced. Fig. 11.7. An adult Caenorhabditis elegans hermaphrodite. Fig. 11.8. Cell lineage determination in C. elegans vulva formation. Fig. 11.9. Components of the Notch signalling pathway in Drosophila.

The Controversy Over Music Censorship Essay -- Media

The Controversy Over Music Censorship Censorship in music is a very controversial subject in today’s society. What is considered a form of artistic expression to some is also considered vulgar and inappropriate to others. But who ultimately gets to decide what is considered vulgar and what is not? Who decides who hears what in the music industry? The RIAA is responsible for applying the Parental Advisory stamp on every album that is released in the United States. The FCC is responsible for making sure that no vulgarities or controversial comments are aired on radio or television. But why is some content edited and other content not? I will try and explain these questions in our article. What decides whether or not the Parental Advisory stickers get placed on an album? The RIAA follows seven guidelines in applying this important notice. 1) Contemporary cultural morals can not be offended or mocked in any way, shape or form. 2) The context of words can not be used offensively. This includes curse words. 3) The context of the song itself must not be offen...

Blackpool: the Las Vegas of Lancashire?

Blackpool is the original seaside destination and a model for other hotspots like Coney Island and Atlantic City (Jerde Partnership, 2003). Blackpool still remains the largest seaside resort in the UK but since the 1990s Blackpool has experienced a 30% drop in tourism (Jerde Partnership, 2003). Blackpool Borough Council commissioned EDAW together with experienced architects The Jerde Partnership to prepare a masterplan for central Blackpool. The need for the masterplan was clear, to transform the seaside resort from slow and steady decline to a future of achievable and sustained growth (EDAW, 2003). This report looks at where Blackpool has come from, where it is now and where it hopes to be. It will evaluate the effectiveness of Blackpool's strategy, examining the expectations and demands of the stakeholders. If will also examine the support of the proposed actions plans by the stakeholders and the local community. History Blackpool takes its name from ‘le pull', a stream which drains Marton Mere and Marton Moss into the sea. The stream runs through peat lands which discolour the water hence the name Black Poole (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). In the late 1700s Blackpool was frequented by the landed gentry following a national craze for sea bathing and the drinking of seawater (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). The building of the Preston and Wyre railway in 1840 provided cheap excursion trains to Blackpool from industrial Lancashire, making Blackpool a destination for thousands of visitors from Lancashire and Yorkshire. By the late 1800s Blackpool's visitors were predominately the working classes from Lancashire and Yorkshire rather than the gentry. Blackpool was seen as ‘the Playground of the Industrial Revolution': a town that grew rich on traditional Wakes Weeks (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). The development of the resort's entertainment attractions began in the 1890s to provide facilities for the 35,000 resident population together with approximately 250,000 annual visitors (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). Illuminated trams were first seen in Blackpool in 1897 as part of the Jubilee celebrations but static illuminations did not appear until 1912 (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). BASELINE DATA Blackpool has high levels of social and economic deprivation. Blackpool was ranked 32nd on the index of multiple deprivation out of 354 districts in England in 2000 (ODPM, 2003). Seven of Blackpool's wards are in the 10% most deprived in England, this equates to 32% of Blackpool's population (approximately 40,000 people). Tourism continues to be the major employer in the region, 88% of employment is in the service sector, linked to tourism and leisure. Blackpool has a lower gross domestic product (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½7,383 per head) than Liverpool (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9,352 per head), which has European Objective 1 status. Blackpool's small manufacturing sector, accounts for 10% of jobs, has suffered a decline in recent years. Local specialisms are in vehicles, food and drink and plastics, with nationally known firms including TVR Sports Cars, Horizon Biscuits and Glasdon UK Ltd. Blackpool is also an important administrative centre, accommodating large national and regional office headquarters such as the National Savings (‘Ernie') and the Department of Social Security (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). Despite this Blackpool has lacked major investment and is very run down with a large number of houses, hotels and guesthouses in multiple occupation (HMO), particularly for benefit claimants. It also has very poor sea water quality and polluted beaches. Blackpool's population has risen from 473 in 1801 to 3,707 in 1861, by 1901 it had reached 47,348 and 101,553 by 1931. The population of Blackpool has now steadied at around 150,000. With a population of 4,366 per kmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, Blackpool is more densely populated than Liverpool or Manchester. Outside of London, only Portsmouth is more densely populated (Blackpool Challenge Partnership, 2002). Blackpool has a high proportion of economically inactive people with 27.8% of the population retired compared with 18.9% nationally and 5.3% unemployment compared to a UK average of 3.3% (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). There are also between 2,000 and 3,000 homeless people in Blackpool (Blackpool Challenge Partnership, 2002). In 1989 a national survey found that 4,190,000 holidaymakers stayed in the resort and 12,590,000 people came on day or evening trips (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). Over the years there has been a significant shift in holiday patterns with more people using self-catering accommodation and many more people visiting the resort for day or evening trips or short breaks (Blackpool Borough Council, 2003). The bulk of visitors come from social groups C & D (manual skilled and non-skilled) with limited disposable income with the majority still coming from Lancashire, Yorkshire and Scotland. THE WAY FORWARD: BLACKPOOL'S OPTIONS * Do nothing (product continues to decline) * Upgrade existing facilities (prolong product life cycle but remain in same market area) * Radical change (move into new market area with new product) BLACKPOOL'S VISION AND MASTERPLAN Blackpool will be recognised as a vibrant, inclusive, healthy, safe and prosperous town where visitors and residents share the common goal of Blackpool being the number one visitor destination in the UK (BCP, 2003) ‘If Blackpool is to survive and prosper, it must find ways in which it can once again become internationally competitive as a destination resort.' (Marc W. Etches, Managing Director, Leisure Parcs Ltd) Stakeholder Expectations. The key stakeholder groups for the renaissance of Blackpool are public bodies, private sector organisations and members of the public & community groups. The following identifies some of the principal members of the stakeholder groups: Public Bodies * Blackpool Borough Council * The Blackpool Challenge Partnership (also the Borough L.S.P) * North-West Development Agency/Lancashire West Partnership * The European Union * The Government (SRB) and Government Office for the North-West * North-West Tourist Board & English Tourism Council * Blackpool & Fylde College * The Gaming Review Board * Lancashire Constabulary Private Sector * Banking industry * Blackpool Airport * Blackpool Chamber of Trade * Blackpool Pleasure Beach * Blackpool Seasonal Traders Association * Blackpool Town Centre Forum * Casino Resort Operators * Conference organisers * Construction companies * Consultants (to develop & deliver proposals) * Entertainment industry * Holiday operators & travel agents * ICT industry * Leisure Parcs (owners of Blackpool Tower, the Sea Life Centre, the Three Piers and the Wintergardens) * Local & national press * Service industry (hotels, catering) * Transport industry Community Groups/Members Of The Public * Blackpool Coalition against Gaming Expansion * Blackpool Diocese * Existing visitors to Blackpool * Future new visitors to Blackpool * Population of Blackpool These groups will comprise mainly those with an interest in developing the new Blackpool ‘product' (supply side) and those which will constitute the demand for the Blackpool product. However, market competitors will also be less direct stakeholders in Blackpool – these could include competitor resort casino operators (Las Vegas, Australia's Gold Coast, Sun City) and other ‘mini-break' destinations (Center Parcs, Euro Disney, Amsterdam, Dublin etc.) and UK weekend-break destinations (Manchester, Liverpool, Newcastle, London etc.) Since achieving the new Blackpool product will require huge and comprehensive changes to the physical and economic make-up of the borough, the process will require both a clear vision and a robust business plan, supported by the many stakeholders. Moreover, it will require a credible leader with the necessary skills, experience drive and determination to realise the vision. There are likely to be significant obstacles to achieving the new Blackpool, therefore a strong leader will essential in order to retain the support and enthusiasm of all the projects varied stakeholders. In order to gain extensive stakeholder support for the new Blackpool, their (probably) disparate expectations must be recognised and subsequently acted upon. Once stakeholders have been identified, a process of consultation should take place to discover what they want Blackpool to be. This will inform the visioning exercise and if stakeholder views are acted on, assist in building consensus. With a large range of stakeholders, it would be appropriate to adopt a flexible and multi-faceted approach to consultation; different methods (exhibitions, ‘listening' events, newspaper articles, focus groups, public meetings, questionnaires) would be geared to the natures of the various stakeholders. In reality, this is what Blackpool has done. The lead organisation for the project, The Blackpool Masterplan, is the Blackpool Challenge Partnership (since 2002 also the Local Strategic Partnership LSP for the Borough). The key funding for driving the Masterplan forward through development and on to delivery is à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½20,000,000 of SRB6, secured in late 2000 and à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½X million in EDZ money from the European Union, secured in 2001. As part of the bid process, the partnership undertook a significant amount of consultation via the Let's Talk Campaign. This included: * A 2-page questionnaire prepared by the Blackpool Town Centre Forum and sent out to more than 500 shops, pubs, clubs, banks and building societies (results indicated that 91% of respondents supported the Masterplan); * Focus groups and telephone canvassing of a random sample of 600 local people, undertaken by a specialist market research consultancy; * Meetings with specific groups (e.g. churches, youth organisations). Since securing the SRB6 funding, a comprehensive package of projects are being developed and delivered to bring broad social and economic benefits to Blackpool, as well as the development of the Vision Masterplan. The Marketing Plan. (2 Vision Statements – which is confusing!) The Vision statement is that ‘Blackpool will be a Vibrant, Inclusive Healthy, Safe and Prosperous Town.' As with many municipal vision statements, this in my opinion, is both vague and all encompassing and therefore not particularly useful (no measurable targets, so how do you know how to get there?). However, it gives a positive message which few stakeholders are likely to disagree with. The vision aims to provide a better quality of life for people in Blackpool by revitalising the tourism industry. The key strands for realising this vision are: * Building ‘state of the art' conference facilities; * Radically improving the hotel offer (more quality 3 and 4 star hotels); * Revamping existing attractions and revitalising the entertainment offer; * Creating an internationally recognised centre for tourism and casino training; * Tackling crime, especially burglary and car crime; * Improving the health of people in Blackpool through a range of initiatives; * Improving education outcomes and community learning opportunities. Building on existing physical and social regeneration funded through SRB2, the new Blackpool would be achieved through a series of projects and thematic activities. However, at the centre of the regeneration programme is the aim to improve the quality of life for local people by increasing local economic growth through enhanced tourism activity. And the hub of this plan is the proposal to create a purpose built conference centre and resort casino in the centre of Blackpool. Marketing Objectives. The Masterplan sets out the marketing approach for Blackpool. Since this has been developed; through extensive consultation with stakeholders, it would seem fair to say it reflects the broad wishes of most stakeholders (even the Blackpool Diocese†¦). Obvious objectors would be the anti-gaming lobbyists. The Masterplan sets out how radical physical changes coupled with capital investment will transform the town, making it attractive to new market sectors (i.e. visitors who will spend more money. So although Blackpool has undergone notable economic regeneration and diversification during the past decade, by SRB2 funding, the economy is still largely dependent on tourism (Source?) . However, with the current tourism offer in decline, the Blackpool ‘product' will need to undergo change in order to prosper(Source?) . Given that the town has so much existing experience and infrastructure based around tourism, the obvious theme for economic regeneration would be to deliver an improved tourism offer that meets current market demand, therefore bringing more money into the town. This is exactly what Blackpool is doing – instigating a comprehensive, economic regeneration programme, led by tourism. This is complemented by two further themes of physical improvements and to benefit the socially excluded sector of Blackpool's population. The latter would be principally around housing, health, education, training and entry to employment. Set out in the Blackpool Masterplan, the hub of the vision for the new Blackpool product is the development of 3 (?) resort casino hotels with associated purpose built conference facilities as well as broad appeal leisure facilities. These would include shops, restaurants, cafà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s, bars, cinemas, theatres and a large leisure pool. Since poor weather is currently a visitor deterrent, these facilities would be covered to allow for all year round use. Moreover, covered links are proposed to key existing attractions, such as the Pleasure Beach funfair. Access issues have already been partially addressed. In 1995 the new Blackpool Airport terminal building was opened and passenger number increased from 50,000 in 2002 to a projected 250,000 in 2003. This increase is principally due to the introduction of daily Ryanair flights to London Stansted and Dublin. Part of the forward programme of improvements are safer car parks and a modernised tram system. Bit more on resort casinos†¦ Associated economic benefits in Blackpool†¦ Associated economic benefits to the region†¦ Critical analysis of the Blackpool Masterplan STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES * Blackpool product radically transformed * Broad stakeholder support * Builds on existing strengths * Comprehensive regeneration package(economic, physical and social elements) * The product would be first of its kind in UK * Proposals too radical? * Timescale issues * Funding issues * No casino operator secured * New gambling bill not enacted until 2006 at the earliest * Planning issues * Old Blackpool image might remain; will new market sectors want to come to Blackpool? What happens if the gaming laws don't change? Blackpool Council leader Roy Fisher has stated that ‘ We believe the relaxation of the gaming laws will happen, which is why we're trying to harness the positive potential of that development now. However, casinos are just one facet of the wide ranging draft masterplan that includes building a host of other new attractions and facilities. Rest assured, the council is absolutely committed to a major programme of regeneration for Blackpool. With or without casinos, we are determined that Blackpool will be transformed once again into a destination of truly national and international calibre.' (Blackpool Today, 2003). In addition to this the Jerde Partnership (2003) acknowledge that the gaming reforms are an important ingredient in Blackpool's strategy but they are not required for success COMPETITORS U.K. * Seaside resorts (e.g. Southport, Lytham, Brighton, Scarborough) * City-break destinations (e.g. Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, London) * Mini-break destinations (e.g. Centre Parcs) * Conference centres (e.g. Harrogate, Brighton, Bournemouth) * Theme Parks (e.g. Alton Towers, Lightwater Valley, Legoland, Chessington) * ‘Hen & Stag' destinations (e.g. Nottingham, Chester, York, Newcastle) Abroad. * Casino resorts (e.g. Las Vegas, Sun City, Gold Coast) * Theme Parks (Euro Disney, Disneyworld Orlando, Disneyland Los Angeles) * Package holiday destinations (e.g. Spain, Greece, Tenerife, Florida) * Conference destinations in other European cities * ‘Hen & Stag' destinations (e.g. Dublin, Amsterdam, Prague, Barcelona) CONCLUSIONS * Blackpool needs radical change since the present product , principally a tourism offer, is at the end of its lifecycle and in serious decline * New product / new market * Comprehensive marketing plan * Balance of realism and informed risk taking

William T Love

When William T Love first envisioned Model City, how could he have suspected the twists of fate that would turn his vision into a chemical disaster area that would grab the attention of the nation and bring suffering upon the people living around it? The engineers at Hooker Chemicals had some idea of the toxic melting pot that was fermenting when they strongly recommended that the site was not suitable for inhabitation. But apparently city planners did not realize what they were doing when they built a school and community on top of the buried dump of brewing chemicals puncturing the already poor containment walls and spreading the chemicals throughout the surrounding area. The pandemonium that broke out when residents finally discovered what was oozing out of the ground perked the attention of the attention of the nation and brought home dangerous effects that toxic chemicals can have on humans. As with any large-scale disaster there is no one villain, but instead a procession of events that led to the climax of the disaster in August 1978. In the late 1800s the potential use of hydroelectric power in conjunction with the Niagara Escarpment came to the forefront. In the early 1880s, William T. Love envisioned a city, Model City (p. 9, Love Canal), that would attract industry through the distribution of free power. To this end, Love planned to build a canal to divert water from the Niagara River to his power plant. Through powers of persuasion and political influence, Love was able to condemn properties and divert as much water as needed to commence the project. In the mid 1890s, after ground had been broken for industry, housing, and with construction underway on the canal, investors began to pull out of the project due to economic depression. About this time Tesla discovered a method to transmit electrical power using alternating current. This made it less essential for industry to be l...

Animal Imagery in the Novel McTeague essays

Animal Imagery in the Novel McTeague essays The novel McTeague by Frank Norris emphasizes the very basic idea of greed and the animalistic effects that greed produces in the human race. The central characters of the novel come together in San Francisco during the Gold Rush Period. The novel revolves around a character known as McTeague, or affectionately known as Mac, an apprenticed dentist, and the movement his life takes. The novel begins with the young McTeague working in a mine and transcends through his life as a professional, his marriage, and his eventual death. Frank Norris narrator portrays the characters of the novel McTeague as animals masquerading in human clothing. The characters are a direct representation of the reprehensible side of humanity that lingers beneath the surface, waiting for the opportune time to shed its skin and manifest itself. Throughout the novel, the characters repeatedly battle their inner desire to break free from their human skin and be the true animal that Norris metaphorically portrays them to be. However, it is important to note that the real animals of the world continue to lead their lives far superior than their human counterparts. Animals seem to be above the pettiness that we humans engage in. They display honorable actions that escape the human species. The confrontation of the two dogs in the street and the cat, which runs away from the crime scene, go to confirm this declaration. The unvarying description of McTeague as being large in stature suggests that his character is animalistic and primitive. Norris portrayal of Mac as a king of beasts can be seen in the repetition of his insistent mumbling and grunts, and by the profession in which he works, one which causes considerable pain to his clients. He is very instinctual and cannot control his large body; he is only capable of performing monotonous tasks. His transformation begins during the treatment of his patient Trina. Mac, for the first time, ba...

Evidence-Based Practice Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Evidence-Based Practice - Coursework Example Polit and Beck (2006) argue that, not all research is of the high standard or the same quality and thus, nurses should not just take evidence-based practice at its face value although published. In my review and critique, I will first appraise the limitations and strengths of a given piece of literature to determine its applicability and credibility to the nursing profession (Valente, 2003). A cross-examination of the limitations of the work of literature of the evidence-based practice should thus, not be viewed as a disparagement of the ability of a researcher, but as strength aimed at validating that work of research. Secondly, I will review the research questions of the evidence-based practice. Valente (2003) argues that, research questions can be sub-divided into credibility variables and integrity variables and thus, used as a critiquing tool for analyzing an evidence-based practice. Therefore, as a nurse, I will review the research questions of the research to determine the credibility and applicability of the practice in the nursing profession e.g. through either the integrity variables, which analyze and evaluate the process of the evidence-based practice or credibi lity variables, which focus on the background qualifications of the researcher. It is also important to examine at the literature review of a given evidence based practice to determine whether the practice draws evidence from the literature of recent origin. A viable and reliable evidence-based practice should draw literature evidence from current researches especially from primary sources that are of an empirical nature. A practice can be rendered obsolete, incredible, and inapplicable in the nursing profession if it lacks sufficient backing evidence. In addition, I will cross-examine the theoretical framework of the practice to determine whether an appropriate and adequate conceptual framework

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Garrett Hardin's The Tragedy of the Commons. W7 disc - Essay Example By procreation, an adult couple locks up a portion of the common resources for the sustenance of the child. This includes the air, water, food and other material necessities that the child would require for survival. But people don’t aspire to merely survive – they want to ‘enjoy’ life’s comforts. So, the process of procreation also locks up more valuable natural resources for the child. Hence, the population problem is a core issue concerning the commons. Published first in 1968, Hardin’s essay displays foresight and identifies an emerging socio-political problem. In the four decades that has elapsed since it was first written, the population of the world has nearly doubled, making the relevance and intensity of the issues raised more acute. Citing the example of the pastoral commons, Hardin correctly points out how, if each herdsman looks after only his own interests, the common meadows will soon get ruined due to over grazing. In a world where resources are infinite, or its consumption is negligible (as when the population is too low), such unfettered consumption of resources makes logical sense for the individual and also the society. In this scenario, not only do the individual and his immediate community prosper, but the species is also propagated, constituting a common good. But the equation changes quickly, once resources become scarce, whereby the consumers feel the ‘finite’ nature of what they use. In thi s scenario, an individual looking after himself and his immediate community is no longer practically viable or morally proper. It is easy to transpose this argument concerning the common pastures to the population question. By analogy and deduction, it becomes quite clear that individuals/parents can no longer be afforded the right to procreate for their own interests. The idea of receiving government sanctions